Warfare, endemic violence &amp; state collapse in Africa

From January 2024, all of our readers will be able to access every part of ROAPE as well as its archive without a paywall. This will make ROAPE accessible to a much wider readership, especially in Africa. We need subscriptions and donations to make this revolutionary intiative work.

Subscribe and Donate now!

scite_

Review of African Political Economy

Volume 26, Issue 81

Record: found
Abstract: found
Article: found

Is Open Access

Warfare, endemic violence & state collapse in Africa

research-article

Author(s): Chris Allen

Publication date (Print): September 1999

Journal: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

Bookmark

Abstract

African politics in the nineties have been marked by a series of violent breakdowns of order, and in some cases the disappearance of the central state, in a large number of states. Attempts at the analysis of this phenomenon have involved several different but complementary approaches, notably those invoking globalisation, the economics of ‘new’ war, the crisis of the neopatrimonial state, or social and cultural factors as keys to explanation. These either confine themselves to case studies, or treat all instances of endemic violence as open to the same analysis, in part because they treat violence or warfare as themselves the central objects of analysis. An alternative approach does not see ‘war’ as the problem, but is instead concerned with the historical circumstances within which endemic violence occurs and which can be seen as possible causes of that violence.

This approach allows for the simultaneous existence of several different historical sequences involving war and violence, and identifies one key category of cases of endemic violence which covers the great majority of those cases in the nineties: violence associated with the process of state collapse in Africa. It attributes the origins of violence in these cases to the degeneration of their ‘spoils politics’ systems under the impact of their internal dynamics, accelerated by economic decline since 1980 and the end of the Cold War. As spoils systems develop into ‘terminal spoils’, so violence intensifies and takes on new but necessary forms, and a process of state collapse begins, interacting with the growth of violence in ways that accelerate both.

Content

Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (publisher-id): crea20

Journal ID (archive): CREA

Title: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

ISSN (Print): 0305-6244

ISSN (Electronic): 1740-1720

Publication date (Print): September 1999

Volume: 26

Issue: 81

Pages: 367-384

Article

Publisher ID: 8704399 Coden ID: Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 26, No. 81, September 1999, pp. 367-384

DOI: 10.1080/03056249908704399

SO-VID: 84067b7c-e35f-413a-9d85-c8832cff3982

License:

All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

Page count

Figures: 0, Tables: 0, References: 87, Pages: 18

Bibliography

Abraham A and Sesay H. . 1993. . “‘Regional Politics and Social Services Provision Since Independence’. ”. In The State and the Provision of Social Services in Sierra Leone Since Independence . , Edited by: Fyle C Magbaily. . Dakar : : Codesria. .
Adam H M. . 1992. . ‘Somalia: Militarism, Warlordism or Democracy?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 54:: 11––26. .
African Rights. . 1995a. . Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance . , (second edition). , London : : African Rights. .
1995b. . Facing Genocide: the Nuba of Sudan . , London : : African Rights. .
Allen C. . 1989. . “‘Benin’. ”. In Benin, the Congo, Burkina Faso . , Edited by: Allen C. . p. 1––144. . London : : Pinter. .
1995. . ‘Understanding African Politics’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 65:: 301––20. .
Amnesty International. . November. 1996 . Zaire: Lawlessness and Insecurity in North and South Kivu. . , November. , London : : AI. .
September. 1997 . ’Breaking God's Commands’: the Destruction of Childhood by the Lord's Resistance Army . , September. , London : : AI. .
November. 1997 . Algeria: Civilian Population Caught in a Spiral of Violence . , November. , London : : AI. .
December. 1997 . Congo: Deadly Alliances in Congolese Forests . , December. , London : : AI. .
November‐1. 1998 . Democratic Republic of Congo: War Against Unarmed Civilians . , November‐1. , London : : AI. .
November‐2. 1998 . Sierra Leone: 1998‐a Year of Atrocities Against Civilians . , November‐2. , London : : AI. .
Bangura Y. . 1997. . ‘Understanding the Political and Cultural Dynamics of the Sierra Leone War: a Critique of Paul Richard's “Fighting for the Rain Forest"’. . Africa Development . , Vol. 26((3/4)): 117––148. .
Berdal M and Keen D. . 1997. . ‘Violence and Economic Agendas in Civil Wars: Some Policy Implications’. . Millenium, . , Vol. 26((3)): 795––818. .
Burr M. . 1998. . Quantifying Genocide in Southern Sudan and the Nuba Mountains 1983–1998 . , New York : : US Committee for Refugees. .
Chabal P and Daloz J P. . 1999. . Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument . , Oxford : : James Currey. .
Charlton R and May R. . 1989. . ‘Warlords and Militarism in Chad’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 45/46:: 12––25. .
Chrétien J P. , ed. 1995. . Rwanda: les Médias du Génocide . , Paris : : Karthala. .
Clapham C. . 1988. . “‘Liberia’. ”. In Contemporary West African States . , Edited by: O'Brien D C. . p. 99––111. . Cambridge : : CUP. .
Clapham C and C. , eds. 1989. . “‘The Politics of Failure: Clientelism, Political Instability and National Integration in Liberia and Sierra Leone’. ”. In Private Patronage and Public Power . , New York : : St Martin's Press. .
1998. . African Guerrillas . , Oxford : : James Currey. .
Clark J F. . 1998. . “‘Zaire: the Bankruptcy of the Extractive State’. ”. In The African State at a Critical Juncture . , Edited by: Villalon L and Huxtable P. . p. 109––25. . Boulder : : L Rienner. .
Clayton A. . 1999. . Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa Since 1950 . , London : : UCL Press. .
Compagnon D. . “‘Somali Armed Units’. ”. In African Guerrillas . , Edited by: Clapham C. . p. 73––90. . Oxford : : James Currey. .
Conciliation Resources. . 1997. . Gender and Conflict in Sierra Leone .
CSI. . 1999. . Trip Report: Visit to Northern Bahr El Ghazal, Sudan . , Zurich : : Christian Solidarity International. .
Duffield M. . 1990. . War and Famine . , Oxford : : Oxfam. .
Macrae J and Zwi A. , eds. 1994. . “‘The Political Economy of Internal War’. ”. In War and Hunger . , p. 50––69. . London : : Zed. .
1998. . ‘Postmodern Conflict: Warlords, Post‐adjustment States and Private Protection’. . Civil Wars . , Vol. 1((1)): 65––102. .
Ellis S. . 1995. . ‘Liberia 1989–1994: a Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 94((375)): 165––97. .
Clapham C. , ed. 1998. . “‘Liberia's Warlord Insurgency’. ”. In African Guerrillas . , p. 155––71. . Oxford : : James Currey. .
Ellyas A and Hamani H. . Sept.. 1999 . “‘Civil War to Reconciliation? Algeria Hopes and Prays’. ”. In Le Monde Diplomatique . , English edition. Sept.. ,
Ferme M. . 1998. . ‘The Violence of Numbers: Consensus, Competition and the Negotiation of Disputes in Sierra Leone’. . Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines . , Vol. 150–52:: 555––80. .
Galy M. . ‘Liberia, Machine Perverse: Anthro‐pologie Politique du Conflit Liberien’. . Cahiers d'Études Africaines . , Vol. 150–52:533––53. .
Howe H M. . 1998. . ‘Private Security Forces and African Stability: the Case of Executive Outcomes’. . Journal of Modem African Studies . , Vol. 36((2)): 307––31. .
HRW. . 1993. . Divide and Rule: State‐Sponsored Ethnic Violence in Kenya .
1994. . Easy Prey: Child Soldiers in Liberia .
1996. . Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence During the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath .
March. 1997 . ’Attacked By All Sides’: Civilians and the War in Eastern Zaire . March. ,
Sept. 1997 . The Scars of Death: Children Abducted by the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda . Sept. ,
Oct. 1997 . Democratic Republic of Congo: What Kabila is Hiding ‐Civilian Killings and Impunity in Congo . Oct. ,
June. 1998 . Kenya: Political Violence Spirals . June. ,
July. 1998 . Sowing Terror: Atrocities Against Civilians in Sierra Leone . July. ,
Aug. 1998 . Algeria's Human Rights Crisis . Aug. ,
Feb‐1. 1999 . Famine in Sudan, 1998: The Human Rights Causes . Feb‐1. ,
Feb‐2. 1999 . Nigeria: the Price of Oil . Feb‐2. ,
March. 1999 . Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda . March. ,
May. 1999 . Nigeria: Crackdown in the Niger Delta . May. ,
June. 1999 . Getting Away With Murder, Mutilation and Rape: New Testimony from Sierra Leone . June. ,
Sept. 1999 . Angola Unravels: the Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process . , Sept. , New York : : Human Rights Watch. .
Jean F and Rufin J C. , eds. 1996. . Economie des Guerres Civils . , Paris : : Hachette. .
Joseph R A. . 1988. . Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria . , Cambridge : : CUP. .
Kaldor M. . 1999. . New and Old Wars: Organised Violence in a Global Era . , Cambridge : : Polity. .
Kaplan R D. . 1994. . ‘The Coming Anarchy: How Scarcity, Crime, Overpopulation, and Disease are Rapidly Destroying the Social Fabric of our Planet’. . Atlantic Monthly . , February;: 44––76. .
Keen D. . 1998. . The Economic Functions of Violence in Civil Wars . , London : : OUP for IISS. .
Lemarchand R. . 1996. . Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide . , Cambridge : : CUP. .
Leslie W J. . 1993. . Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State . , Boulder : : West‐view. .
Lewis I M. . 1998. . ‘Doing Violence to Enth‐nography: a Response to Catherine Besteman's “Representing Violence and Othering” Somalia’. . Cultural anthropology . , Vol. 13((1)): 100––108. .
Longman T. . 1999. . “‘State, Civil Society and Genocide in Rwanda’. ”. In State, Conflict and Democracy in Africa . , Edited by: Joseph R A. . p. 339––58. . Boulder : : Rienner. .
Metz S. . 1996. . Reform, Conflict and Security in Zaire . , US Army War College. .
Muana P. . 1997. . The Kamajoi Militia: Violence, Internal Displacement and the Politics of Counter‐insurgency’. . Africa Development . , Vol. 26((3/ 4)): 77––100. .
Nordstrom C. . 1997. . A Different Kind of War Story . , Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .
Osagahe E. . 1996. . Ethnicity, Class and the Struggle for State Power in Liberia . , Dakar : : Codesria. .
1999. . ‘Democratisation in Sub‐saharan Africa: Faltering Prospects, New Hopes’. . Journal of Contemporary African Studies . , Vol. 17((1)): 5––l28. .
Outram Q. . 1997. . ‘"It's Terminal Either Way”: an Analysis of Armed Conflict in Liberia, 1989–1996’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 73:: 355––71. .
Prunier G. . 1997. . The Geopolitical Situation in the Great Lakes Area in Light of the Kivu Crisis . , UNHCR. .
Refugees International. . 1997. . The Lost Refugees: Herded and Hunted in Eastern Zaire . , Washington : : RI. .
Reno W. . 1993. . ‘Foreign Firms and the Financing of Charles Taylor's NPFL’. . Liberian Studies Journal . , Vol. 18((2)): 175––85. .
1995. . Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone . , Cambridge : : CUP. .
1996. . The Business of War in Liberia, Current History . , Vol. 95((601)): 211––215. .
1997a. . ‘African Weak States and Commercial Alliances’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 96((383)): 165––86. .
1997b. . Humanitarian Emergencies and Warlord Economies in Liberia and Sierra Leone . , Helsinki : : WIDER. .
Villalon L and Huxtable P. , eds. 1998. . “‘Sierra Leone: Weak States and the New Sovereignty Order’. ”. In The African State at a Critical Juncture . , Vol. Vol. 98. , p. 93––108. . Boulder : : Rienner. .
Richards P. . 1996. . Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone . , Oxford : : James Currey. .
Sawyer A. . 1992. . The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia . , San Francisco : : Institute for Contemporary Studies. .
Schatzberg M G. . 1988. . The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire . , Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .
Shearer D. . 1997. . ‘Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone,’. . Millennium . , Vol. 26((3)): 845––60. .
Smith G H. . 1997. . ‘The Dichotomy of Politics and Corruption in a Neopatrimonial State: Evidence from Sierra Leone, 1968–1993’. . Issue, . , Vol. 25((2)): 58––61. .
Turshen M and Twagiramariya C. , eds. 1998. . What Women do in Wartime: Gender and Conflict in Africa. . , London : : Zed. .
Turton B. , ed. 1997. . War and Ethnicity:global Connections and Local Violence . , Rochester , NY : : University of Rochester Press. .
USCR. . 1996. . Ethnic Cleansing and Displacement in Eastern Zaire . , Washington : : US Committee for Refugees. .
Willame J C. . 1992. . L ‘automned'un Despotisme . , Paris : : Karthala;J. .
Willame J C. . 1997. . Zaire: Predicament and Prospects . , Washington : : US Institute of Peace. .
Young C and Tumer T. . 1985. . The Rise and Decline of the Zairean State . , Madison : : University of Wisconsin Press. .
Young C. . 1994. . ‘Zaire — The Shattered Illusion of the Integral State’. . Journal of Modern African Studies . , Vol. 32((2)): 247––63. .
Zack‐Williams A B. . 1999. . ‘Sierra Leone: The Political Economy of Civil War 1991–98’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 20((1))
Zartman I W. , ed. 1995. . Collapsed States . , Boulder : : Rienner. .

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Abraham A and Sesay H. . 1993. . “‘Regional Politics and Social Services Provision Since Independence’. ”. In The State and the Provision of Social Services in Sierra Leone Since Independence . , Edited by: Fyle C Magbaily. . Dakar : : Codesria. .

[2] Adam H M. . 1992. . ‘Somalia: Militarism, Warlordism or Democracy?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 54:: 11––26. .

[3] African Rights. . 1995a. . Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance . , (second edition). , London : : African Rights. .

[4] 1995b. . Facing Genocide: the Nuba of Sudan . , London : : African Rights. .

[5] Allen C. . 1989. . “‘Benin’. ”. In Benin, the Congo, Burkina Faso . , Edited by: Allen C. . p. 1––144. . London : : Pinter. .

[6] 1995. . ‘Understanding African Politics’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 65:: 301––20. .

[7] Amnesty International. . November. 1996 . Zaire: Lawlessness and Insecurity in North and South Kivu. . , November. , London : : AI. .

[8] September. 1997 . ’Breaking God's Commands’: the Destruction of Childhood by the Lord's Resistance Army . , September. , London : : AI. .

[9] November. 1997 . Algeria: Civilian Population Caught in a Spiral of Violence . , November. , London : : AI. .

[10] December. 1997 . Congo: Deadly Alliances in Congolese Forests . , December. , London : : AI. .

[11] November‐1. 1998 . Democratic Republic of Congo: War Against Unarmed Civilians . , November‐1. , London : : AI. .

[12] November‐2. 1998 . Sierra Leone: 1998‐a Year of Atrocities Against Civilians . , November‐2. , London : : AI. .

[13] Bangura Y. . 1997. . ‘Understanding the Political and Cultural Dynamics of the Sierra Leone War: a Critique of Paul Richard's “Fighting for the Rain Forest"’. . Africa Development . , Vol. 26((3/4)): 117––148. .

[14] Berdal M and Keen D. . 1997. . ‘Violence and Economic Agendas in Civil Wars: Some Policy Implications’. . Millenium, . , Vol. 26((3)): 795––818. .

[15] Burr M. . 1998. . Quantifying Genocide in Southern Sudan and the Nuba Mountains 1983–1998 . , New York : : US Committee for Refugees. .

[16] Chabal P and Daloz J P. . 1999. . Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument . , Oxford : : James Currey. .

[17] Charlton R and May R. . 1989. . ‘Warlords and Militarism in Chad’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 45/46:: 12––25. .

[18] Chrétien J P. , ed. 1995. . Rwanda: les Médias du Génocide . , Paris : : Karthala. .

[19] Clapham C. . 1988. . “‘Liberia’. ”. In Contemporary West African States . , Edited by: O'Brien D C. . p. 99––111. . Cambridge : : CUP. .

[20] Clapham C and C. , eds. 1989. . “‘The Politics of Failure: Clientelism, Political Instability and National Integration in Liberia and Sierra Leone’. ”. In Private Patronage and Public Power . , New York : : St Martin's Press. .

[21] 1998. . African Guerrillas . , Oxford : : James Currey. .

[22] Clark J F. . 1998. . “‘Zaire: the Bankruptcy of the Extractive State’. ”. In The African State at a Critical Juncture . , Edited by: Villalon L and Huxtable P. . p. 109––25. . Boulder : : L Rienner. .

[23] Clayton A. . 1999. . Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa Since 1950 . , London : : UCL Press. .

[24] Compagnon D. . “‘Somali Armed Units’. ”. In African Guerrillas . , Edited by: Clapham C. . p. 73––90. . Oxford : : James Currey. .

[25] Conciliation Resources. . 1997. . Gender and Conflict in Sierra Leone .

[26] CSI. . 1999. . Trip Report: Visit to Northern Bahr El Ghazal, Sudan . , Zurich : : Christian Solidarity International. .

[27] Duffield M. . 1990. . War and Famine . , Oxford : : Oxfam. .

[28] Macrae J and Zwi A. , eds. 1994. . “‘The Political Economy of Internal War’. ”. In War and Hunger . , p. 50––69. . London : : Zed. .

[29] 1998. . ‘Postmodern Conflict: Warlords, Post‐adjustment States and Private Protection’. . Civil Wars . , Vol. 1((1)): 65––102. .

[30] Ellis S. . 1995. . ‘Liberia 1989–1994: a Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 94((375)): 165––97. .

[31] Clapham C. , ed. 1998. . “‘Liberia's Warlord Insurgency’. ”. In African Guerrillas . , p. 155––71. . Oxford : : James Currey. .

[32] Ellyas A and Hamani H. . Sept.. 1999 . “‘Civil War to Reconciliation? Algeria Hopes and Prays’. ”. In Le Monde Diplomatique . , English edition. Sept.. ,

[33] Ferme M. . 1998. . ‘The Violence of Numbers: Consensus, Competition and the Negotiation of Disputes in Sierra Leone’. . Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines . , Vol. 150–52:: 555––80. .

[34] Galy M. . ‘Liberia, Machine Perverse: Anthro‐pologie Politique du Conflit Liberien’. . Cahiers d'Études Africaines . , Vol. 150–52:533––53. .

[35] Howe H M. . 1998. . ‘Private Security Forces and African Stability: the Case of Executive Outcomes’. . Journal of Modem African Studies . , Vol. 36((2)): 307––31. .

[36] HRW. . 1993. . Divide and Rule: State‐Sponsored Ethnic Violence in Kenya .

[37] 1994. . Easy Prey: Child Soldiers in Liberia .

[38] 1996. . Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence During the Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath .

[39] March. 1997 . ’Attacked By All Sides’: Civilians and the War in Eastern Zaire . March. ,

[40] Sept. 1997 . The Scars of Death: Children Abducted by the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda . Sept. ,

[41] Oct. 1997 . Democratic Republic of Congo: What Kabila is Hiding ‐Civilian Killings and Impunity in Congo . Oct. ,

[42] June. 1998 . Kenya: Political Violence Spirals . June. ,

[43] July. 1998 . Sowing Terror: Atrocities Against Civilians in Sierra Leone . July. ,

[44] Aug. 1998 . Algeria's Human Rights Crisis . Aug. ,

[45] Feb‐1. 1999 . Famine in Sudan, 1998: The Human Rights Causes . Feb‐1. ,

[46] Feb‐2. 1999 . Nigeria: the Price of Oil . Feb‐2. ,

[47] March. 1999 . Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda . March. ,

[48] May. 1999 . Nigeria: Crackdown in the Niger Delta . May. ,

[49] June. 1999 . Getting Away With Murder, Mutilation and Rape: New Testimony from Sierra Leone . June. ,

[50] Sept. 1999 . Angola Unravels: the Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process . , Sept. , New York : : Human Rights Watch. .

[51] Jean F and Rufin J C. , eds. 1996. . Economie des Guerres Civils . , Paris : : Hachette. .

[52] Joseph R A. . 1988. . Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria . , Cambridge : : CUP. .

[53] Kaldor M. . 1999. . New and Old Wars: Organised Violence in a Global Era . , Cambridge : : Polity. .

[54] Kaplan R D. . 1994. . ‘The Coming Anarchy: How Scarcity, Crime, Overpopulation, and Disease are Rapidly Destroying the Social Fabric of our Planet’. . Atlantic Monthly . , February;: 44––76. .

[55] Keen D. . 1998. . The Economic Functions of Violence in Civil Wars . , London : : OUP for IISS. .

[56] Lemarchand R. . 1996. . Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide . , Cambridge : : CUP. .

[57] Leslie W J. . 1993. . Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State . , Boulder : : West‐view. .

[58] Lewis I M. . 1998. . ‘Doing Violence to Enth‐nography: a Response to Catherine Besteman's “Representing Violence and Othering” Somalia’. . Cultural anthropology . , Vol. 13((1)): 100––108. .

[59] Longman T. . 1999. . “‘State, Civil Society and Genocide in Rwanda’. ”. In State, Conflict and Democracy in Africa . , Edited by: Joseph R A. . p. 339––58. . Boulder : : Rienner. .

[60] Metz S. . 1996. . Reform, Conflict and Security in Zaire . , US Army War College. .

[61] Muana P. . 1997. . The Kamajoi Militia: Violence, Internal Displacement and the Politics of Counter‐insurgency’. . Africa Development . , Vol. 26((3/ 4)): 77––100. .

[62] Nordstrom C. . 1997. . A Different Kind of War Story . , Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .

[63] Osagahe E. . 1996. . Ethnicity, Class and the Struggle for State Power in Liberia . , Dakar : : Codesria. .

[64] 1999. . ‘Democratisation in Sub‐saharan Africa: Faltering Prospects, New Hopes’. . Journal of Contemporary African Studies . , Vol. 17((1)): 5––l28. .

[65] Outram Q. . 1997. . ‘"It's Terminal Either Way”: an Analysis of Armed Conflict in Liberia, 1989–1996’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 73:: 355––71. .

[66] Prunier G. . 1997. . The Geopolitical Situation in the Great Lakes Area in Light of the Kivu Crisis . , UNHCR. .

[67] Refugees International. . 1997. . The Lost Refugees: Herded and Hunted in Eastern Zaire . , Washington : : RI. .

[68] Reno W. . 1993. . ‘Foreign Firms and the Financing of Charles Taylor's NPFL’. . Liberian Studies Journal . , Vol. 18((2)): 175––85. .

[69] 1995. . Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone . , Cambridge : : CUP. .

[70] 1996. . The Business of War in Liberia, Current History . , Vol. 95((601)): 211––215. .

[71] 1997a. . ‘African Weak States and Commercial Alliances’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 96((383)): 165––86. .

[72] 1997b. . Humanitarian Emergencies and Warlord Economies in Liberia and Sierra Leone . , Helsinki : : WIDER. .

[73] Villalon L and Huxtable P. , eds. 1998. . “‘Sierra Leone: Weak States and the New Sovereignty Order’. ”. In The African State at a Critical Juncture . , Vol. Vol. 98. , p. 93––108. . Boulder : : Rienner. .

[74] Richards P. . 1996. . Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone . , Oxford : : James Currey. .

[75] Sawyer A. . 1992. . The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia . , San Francisco : : Institute for Contemporary Studies. .

[76] Schatzberg M G. . 1988. . The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire . , Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .

[77] Shearer D. . 1997. . ‘Exploring the Limits of Consent: Conflict Resolution in Sierra Leone,’. . Millennium . , Vol. 26((3)): 845––60. .

[78] Smith G H. . 1997. . ‘The Dichotomy of Politics and Corruption in a Neopatrimonial State: Evidence from Sierra Leone, 1968–1993’. . Issue, . , Vol. 25((2)): 58––61. .

[79] Turshen M and Twagiramariya C. , eds. 1998. . What Women do in Wartime: Gender and Conflict in Africa. . , London : : Zed. .

[80] Turton B. , ed. 1997. . War and Ethnicity:global Connections and Local Violence . , Rochester , NY : : University of Rochester Press. .

[81] USCR. . 1996. . Ethnic Cleansing and Displacement in Eastern Zaire . , Washington : : US Committee for Refugees. .

[82] Willame J C. . 1992. . L ‘automned'un Despotisme . , Paris : : Karthala;J. .

[83] Willame J C. . 1997. . Zaire: Predicament and Prospects . , Washington : : US Institute of Peace. .

[84] Young C and Tumer T. . 1985. . The Rise and Decline of the Zairean State . , Madison : : University of Wisconsin Press. .

[85] Young C. . 1994. . ‘Zaire — The Shattered Illusion of the Integral State’. . Journal of Modern African Studies . , Vol. 32((2)): 247––63. .

[86] Zack‐Williams A B. . 1999. . ‘Sierra Leone: The Political Economy of Civil War 1991–98’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 20((1))

[87] Zartman I W. , ed. 1995. . Collapsed States . , Boulder : : Rienner. .